Immunoreactivities for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) were studied in developing sympathetic neurons of bullfrog tadpoles and adults. At stage III, nearly all ganglion cells are positive for TH. This suggests early commitment to an adrenergic phenotype, the timing of which is analogous to that reported for sympathetic neurons in birds and mammals. During metamorphic stages and in juvenile bullfrogs, the expression of TH becomes transiently bimodal: many neurons are intensely positive; the remainder are faintly positive. In adult sympathetic neurons, TH expression is more uniform. NPY first appears in a few principal neurons (less than 1%) of paravertebral ganglia 9 and 10 at stage XI. The percentage of ganglion cells containing NPY then increases gradually, reaches adult levels (approximately 55%) by stage XX, and persists at these levels through metamorphosis. The development of NPY expression follows a similar time course in paravertebral ganglion 6. Double-label experiments in late- ...

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The explore/exploit trade-off is a fundamental property of choice selection during reward-guided decision making, where the “same” choice can reflect either of these internal cognitive states. An unanswered question is whether the execution of a decision provides an underexplored measure of internal cognitive states. Touchscreens are increasingly used across species for cognitive testing and afford the ability to measure the precise location of choice touch responses. We examined how male and female mice in a restless bandit decision making task interacted with a touchscreen to determine if the explore/exploit trade-off, prior reward, and/or sex differences change the variability in the kinetics of touchscreen choices. During exploit states, successive touch responses are closer together than those made in an explore state, suggesting exploit states reflect periods of increased motor stereotypy. Although exploit decisions might be expected to be rewarded more frequently than explore decisions, we find that...

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By partnering with international organizations we can support neuroscience priorities across the globe and advance our understanding of the brain.

By partnering with international organizations we can support neuroscience priorities across the globe and advance our understanding of the brain.

By partnering with international organizations we can support neuroscience priorities across the globe and advance our understanding of the brain.